Ravanasura - A multi faceted personality

Ravana was the formidable king of Lanka who came close to becoming an unquestioned ruler of the three worlds. Indeed, the timeless epic Ramayana is as much about the defeat of Ravana as much as it is about the life of Rama, King of Ayodhya. So, if Ravana had learnt his lesson and controlled his ambitions, would it have been necessary for Lord Vishnu to incarnate upon earth as Rama son of King of Dasaratha? This article attempts to understand the character of Ravana in light of what the scriptures tell us.

Ravana’s birth itself is controversial. According to the Bhagwatha purana, Lord Vishnu’s dwarapalakas namely Jaya and Vijaya once were cursed to lose their celestial status and be born on earth. They were offered a choice of seven righteous lifetimes or three unrighteous lifetimes. Jaya and

Vijaya who were appalled at their predicament chose the number three over seven. Thus, during the first lifetime, they were born as the wicked Asura brothers Hiranyakashipa and Hiranyaksha. They were slain by Vishnu during his Varaha and Narasimha avataras. In the second lifetime, they were born as Ravana and his brother Kumbhakarana and were slain by Vishnu who incarnated as Rama, King of Ayodhya. In the third lifetime, Jaya and Vijaya were born as Shishupala and Dantavakra and were slain by Vishnu who reincarnated as Krishna. Thus following the tale from the Bhagwatha purana, Ravana was meant to be and probably could not really help being what he was. For who can fight destiny? Not even the Gods.

As far as lineage goes, Ravana was blessed with the very best of parents that a person could hope for. His father was the great sage Vishrava who was the son of Pulastya and the grandson of none other than Brahma himself. Thus, on his father’s side, Ravana was a direct descendant of Brahma the creator and a Brahmin. He however took after his mother Kaikasi who was the daughter of King Sumali of the Daityas or Asuras. The Daityas were said to have descended from Diti; the second wife of sage Kashyapa and were essentially brothers to the Devas/Gods who were descended from Aditi, Kashyapa’s first wife. The scriptures tell us that Kaikasi was a very ambitious lady and that the sage Vishrava recognized her true ambitions when she approached him and asked him to marry her. Vishrava also warned Kaikasi that given the time of their marriage, their offspring were bound to turn out very bad. But, this information did not deter Kaikasi who was soon blessed with not just one but several children.

The eldest of Kaikasi’s children was Ravana. It is said that he was born with ten heads and was thus named Dasamukha or ‘one with ten heads’. He had two younger brothers namely Vibheshana and Kumbakarna. In addition, Kaikasi gave birth to a sole daughter by the name Soorpanakha. However different sources cite Ravana having more siblings than the ones named. For instance, Ravana is said to have had a brother named Mahiravana who was a powerful magician and became the ruler of the netherworld. In addition, there is also some mention of Khara and Dushana in the Ramayana. But, all sources agree that Ravana also had a half brother older than him. Kubera, the lord of wealth was the first son of Vishrava and Ravana would always have a contentious relationship with his half brother.

As a child Ravana was said to have been very diligent and intelligent; an ideal scholar in all respects. However, his father also noted that Ravana tended to be arrogant and aggressive; taking after his maternal side. Ravana was very well educated and he was recognized as a very learned and proficient individual even by his enemies. He mastered the Vedas, Shastras and the ways of the Kshatriyas. He mastered the use of every weapon known to be used and was a great sorcerer. Vishrava must have realized that Ravana was meant to rule a kingdom. It is said that Ravana performed several pujas as a Brahmin including one for no other than Shiva and Parvati themselves. The puranas tell us about the magnitude of Ravana’s learning and skill. He was unmatched in his knowledge of the nitishastra. Indeed, after his defeat towards the end of the Ramayana, Rama orders his brother Lakshmana to learn the art of nitishastra from the dying Ravana. In addition, he was a very well renowned Veena player; his personal emblem being the Veena. Already a great musician and scholar, Ravana added leadership qualities to his list of virtues. He was the undisputed leader amongst his siblings and even after growing up, his brothers and sister except Vibheshana would primarily defer to his judgment despite having differences of opinion.

After gaining all the skills, Ravana approached his mother Kaikasi who encouraged him to perform a severe penance to gain boons from Brahma, the creator. Ravana and his brothers immediately embarked on a severe penance. At the end of the penance that was so severe that it worried Indra, king of the Gods and traditional enemy of the Asuras, Brahma appeared before Ravana to grant him his boons. Ravana’s requests definitely portended trouble. He initially asked for immortality. Brahma instantly refused such a request that could only result in disaster for the world in general. What evil would a boon of immortality do in the hands of so ambitious and aggressive and individual! Undeterred, Ravana did not even stop to argue with Brahma. Instantly, he asked for immortality in a roundabout fashion. He requested that he might not die from Devas, Asuras, Kinnaras, Nagas, Yakshas and other important life forms. As a boon, it was a formidable one and would have been catastrophic if it were not for a slight neglect on the part of Ravana. In his haste, Ravana had forgotten all about men and monkeys; the two life forms that he considered so insignificant that he overlooked them completely. A wise Brahma immediately understood the significance of this omission and readily granted the boon much to Ravana’s delight.

Flushed with success of his penance, Ravana immediately set about on his cherished dream which was total world domination. He began by attacking Devaloka/Heaven and conquering the Gods. Indra and the rest of the devas including Agni and Vayu were imprisoned as common prisoners. Such was his might that it is said even the Sun God Surya needed his permission to rise and set everyday! After conquering the nether world and heaven, Ravana set his sights on Lanka; the island kingdom ruled by his half brother Kubera. The relationship between Ravana and Kubera were ever strained; Kubera accusing Ravana of succumbing to greed and avariciousness. Ravana however took this opportunity of driving Kubera out of Lanka without any of his prized possessions. Lanka, a fortified island and a rich kingdom was a matchless prize. Kubera was also forced to part with the Pushpaka Vimana; a vehicle that would transport a person to any place of desire. In the end, a defeated Kubera chose to abandon Lanka and his possessions and establish a Yaksha kingdom with Alkapuri as its capital.

Understanding that his domination of the worlds was nearly complete, Ravana retired to Lanka to rule over his dominions. As a citadel, Lanka was matchless. Its walls were strong and well defended. A guardian spirit watched over the main gate ensuring that no enemies ever entered the city. The city itself was designed by none other than Vishwakarma, the architect of the Gods. Legends talk about the wealth of Lanka during the rule of Ravana. It was said that even the poor ate out of vessels of gold and silver and hunger was virtually unknown. Despite his aggressive intentions, Ravana himself is credited to have been a very able and benevolent administrator. He was ably aided in this by his brother Vibheshana who strove to walk the path of Dharma above all things. Vibheshana was destined to stay with Ravana and help moderate all his orders until he got banished from the kingdom for speaking against the abduction of Sita, wife of Rama.

Perhaps one of Ravana’s greatest weaknesses was his behavior towards women. Ravana had several wives, the chief consort being Mandodari, the daughter of Mayasura. Mandodari was a virtuous queen and the mother of several of his sons including the illustrious Indrajit and his brothers Prahastha, Atikaya, et al. But instead of being satisfied, Ravana made advances towards every woman that caught his fancy. Some sources tell us that he was also present at the Swayamvara ceremony of Sita but could not lift the bow of Shiva purely due to his arrogance and conceit.
He coveted Rambha the celestial nymph who was the wife of Kubera’s son and molested her. However, when she refused to give into his advances, Ravana cleverly turned the argument around claiming that Rambha had once an affair with a king and subsequently with his descendant thereby making her different from an honorable woman. When Kubera’s son found out about the incident, he cursed Ravana, declaring that another encounter with an unwilling woman would cause his heads to shatter to a thousand pieces. The curse definitely defined Ravana’s behavior with other women. In the case of a beautiful woman named Vedavati, Ravana had to control himself in lieu of the curse but that did not help for his advances caused her to jump into flames declaring that she would be reborn to destroy him. It is also said that the curse also helped protect Sita’s chastity during her abduction by Ravana.

Ravana continued to make errors in judgment. Absolute power corrupts absolutely and he moved from one blunder to another, angering many a mortal and God in the bargain. A true devotee of Lord Shiva like all other Asuras, Ravana is said to have composed the Shiva Tandava Stotra while trying to gain boons from Shiva. Shiva who was busy at the moment dancing the tandava with his consort Parvati knew of his devotee’s intentions but chose to ignore them. Enraged, Ravana decided to lift the Kailasa Mountain which was the abode of Lord Shiva and take it with him to Lanka. Shiva, in turn enraged by Ravana’s presumptions trod heavily back with his foot nearly crushing Ravana in the

process. It is at this time that Ravana realized his mistake and begged Shiva to end the misery; even sacrificing his numerous heads to the God. A calm Shiva appeared before Ravana and presented him with the Atma Lingam after formally naming him Ravanasura.
Ravana continued on his way back to Lanka taking the Atma Lingam with him only to lose it on the way. The spot is now said to be Rameshwaram today.

The Ramayana reveals that Ravana made all the mistakes that an unheeding, power drunk mortal could make. He did not listen to good advice from his uncle Mareecha and forced him to transform himself into a golden deer to lure Rama out. He got himself provoked by his sister Soorpanaka’s outburst and without thinking rationally, embarked on an agenda to humiliate Rama that led to his own destruction. His brother Vibheshana repeated told him about the offense involved in abducting a woman, a married one at that. However, Ravana chose to ignore these warnings and getting angry in the end, he banished Vibheshana from the kingdom without thinking of the consequences. Vibheshana promptly joined forces with Rama and kept him informed of all of Ravana’s secrets. While Vibheshana did the right thing by taking the path of righteousness and good, there are still some people who question Ravana’s action in the light of military strategy and tactics. Did it really do Ravana any good by banishing a close insider? Even Ravana’s other brother, the great Kumbakarna advised Ravana to return Sita to her husband Rama. Ravana once again chose to disregard this advice. However, Kumbakarna merely shook his head at his brother’s folly and fought in the war and was slain by Rama. Ravana was thus consistently warned by his well wishers but it was his tragic choice that he chose to disregard all good advice.

Ravana’s life is a classic example of brilliance gone wrong. He was given the very best instruction and was truly great in his abilities and achievements, a fact that was duly noted by his favorite God Shiva. However, he never truly learnt the lesson of humility. His arrogance and conceit were boundless. Instead of following the path of Dharma, he consistently chose to flout it time and again. Instead of gaining fame for his countless good qualities, Ravana became known for his improper behavior towards humans and women in particular. His atrocities kept growing in number and eventually became so terrible, that it took an incarnation of Vishnu to subdue him.

In the end, as he lay dying on the battlefield, holding on to the very last breath and giving Lakshmana instruction on Nitishastra and proper administration, Ravana is said to have commented dryly, “Never assume that you have all the time in the world and take nothing for granted. Never procrastinate. I conquered the Heavens and imprisoned Yama, the lord of Death to my bedstead and Shani, the ninth planet under my throne. I told myself that I will always have time to finish them later. What good did this procrastination do? They prevailed anyway.”

[Photo and Content credits:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaya-Vijaya, wikipedia.org, https://indiaheritagesites.wordpress.com/2013/08/16/exploring-the-elephanta-caves/, ]

Summer Holidays

I love to dwell in the past. At first it used to be a habit but lately, it seems to have become a necessity. How else does one remember all those good old things that are slowly becoming extinct? Summer holidays have almost become a thing of the past nowadays. Oh, schools still shut down for a couple of months in the summer. But, it is the way in which the holiday time is spent that has changed so very drastically.
I grew up in the 80’s India. An India on the verge of becoming a vast information technology park. A country populated by the great Indian middle class that was well educated and had aspirations despite the enormous socialist policies of the Congress Party. Computers and cell phones were not common household toys. Beauty contests and Miss Universe titles were virtually unknown. Television was limited to the single Doordarshan channel unlike the numerous channels offered today by the satellite companies.
The summer holidays invariably began with the last day at school where the school teacher would alternately wring and clasp her hands in frustration at not getting the students attention and pure pleasure of not having to yell and scream for a period of two months. The teachers pay was inversely proportional to the energy they spent in controlling the students. No wonder they often resorted to corporal punishment in order to maintain discipline and take out their frustration with the government on students. The school peon would ring the last bell of the term and all the students would celebrate their holidays with loud yells and screams. We would all run home and dump our bags unceremoniously somewhere in the house and then try to enjoy the end of exams by doing practically nothing…..a big difference from feeling guilty about not finishing homework.
TV was not very common in middle class households during the 80’s and so those that had it invariably ended up sharing it with that those that did not have it. We possessed a television set but shared with our less fortunate neighbors and servants. The kaamwali (maidservant) would often show up with the dhobi’s (washer man) son. Mr. Chaturvedi’s four sons would be regulars for Chitrahaar….an Indian movie song countdown. The news was a much watched affair with daddy shushing us quite often in order to get his headlines right. Serials such as Humlog and Ramayan were legendary. All jobs and chores would come to a standstill while people sat down, eyes glued to the television set.
When we were not watching TV, we were busy trying to pack up and go away. The Indian middle class could not, and still does not take any vacation to do serious sight seeing. It is a luxury that only the rich in India can afford. However, summer holidays and school shutdown for a couple of months meant that parents had unruly kids to manage for a long period of time. In order to make things easier, there would be a mass exodus all around the country for people to go and visit Grandparents. This travel would be invariably by railways. Indian railways have and will always be special. It is the most important means of travel for the average middle class Indian. In those days, flights were common
but limited only to the rich. The Indian highway system has always been a joke in the past. So, the people relied on the massive iron roosters to carry them around. Train travel in my childhood was romantic. We traveled from Delhi in the north to Hyderabad in the south to visit my maternal grandparents every summer vacation.  Food always tasted so good on the train.Mother would pack a nice dinner comprising of puris and achaar (pickle)
Window seats in the train compartment were really popular. I have beautiful memories of the Rajdhani express pulling out of the Delhi station. Pretty soon the train would be speeding past fields of rice, whole villages and the rustic Indian countryside. I can recollect almost all the stations on the line since it was such a major route. The train halted at Gwalior, Agra, Jhansi, Mathura, Nagpur, Bhopal, Warda, Kazipet and then finally Secunderabad. The fort of Jhansi would always remind me of the epic poem of Jhansi ki rani by Subhadra Kumari Chauhan. Always the budding archeologist, I would try and romanticize about how this very landscape would have appeared during the Moghul Empire and the 1857 mutiny. I particularly remember the ravines of the Chambal valley, notorious for dacoits and bandits from time immemorial.
Traveling in India is very perilous, as many travel guides and the locals themselves will inform you. However, the average Indian is a curious individual. If he travels with family, then all the more so. I remember mummy chatting with our fellow passengers who were often, a boisterous Marwadi family on their way to the south to visit their relatives. Despite the fact that the food would always be shared around, I could never stop wondering how the kids continued to stuff themselves with homemade delights.

My grandparents lived in an independent house in the outskirts of the main city of Hyderabad. Of course, the congestion and population explosion of today means that somehow, the ‘outskirts’ has become incorporated into the main city itself. It is amazing how big Hyderabad really is today. The house was a typical 60’s construction with the usual number of bedrooms and bathrooms. I loved the four tall coconut trees that swayed in the wind. While northern India had the banyan, Peepal and Neem trees, the south was characterized by coconut trees. Life was very relaxing with great food and plenty of carom board games with my cousins and most important of all, no homework to take care off. .

However, the best part of a holiday was the guilt free book reading that I could indulge in. Indians of my age grew up with Enid Blytons, Asterix, Tintin, Nancy Drews, Phantom, Mandrake and Amar Chitra Katha comics. I lived my life through them and could almost taste Blyton’s trademark picnics where children indulged in mouth watering sandwiches and fruit before saving the day. Blyton’s world was perfect, too perfect as some critiques would put it. But as a kid I could never get my hands on them long enough. It was a real paradox that in a land that valued learning and books so very much, libraries were mostly unknown. I remember a couple of private lending libraries close to our home in Hyderabad that I frequented. They were shabby affairs, ramshackle sheds with tin roofs, dark and dingy inside. But, there were all sorts of hidden delights out there that would tempt the bookworm in me. When I look at the sophisticated British and American libraries out in major Indian cities today, I can only shake my head in wonder.
 India has a strong British influence when it comes to literature and names like P.G.Wodehouse and Agatha Christie are thoroughly appreciated. Long before J.K.Rowling wrote her masterpiece Harry Potter series; there were the Famous Five and the Secret Seven. How many hours I enjoyed burying my nose through some mystery with the Secret Seven or some adventure with the famous five!
One of the main highlights of summer holidays were the mangos. To an Indian, a mango is divine. I can still taste the luscious Alphonso, Banginpalli, Totapooris and the Rasams that were heaped up for sale in the markets. They were delicious and juicy and the adults would always be worried about how we could ruin our clothes or the furniture while eating. Mangoes were used to make daals, curries, pickles, sweets and of course, they were also served ripe which was the best way to eat them.

Summers in India can be extremely hot. Summer days were no different in my childhood. Television commercials took advantage by airing commercials full of delicious coolants. It became a routine for most Indian middle class families to make Rasna soft drink out of the concentrate sold in stores. Rasna was the most popular brand of do-it-yourself softdrinks that came in a variety of flavors. Visitors were almost always offered Rasna Mango, orange or Pineapple flavored drinks. In a country where only the rich had access to swimming pools, these iced soft drinks served the purpose of providing relief.

Summer holidays were a truly delightful when I was a child. We did not have 30 channels on television to watch English serials like Friends and Sex in the City. We did not have video games and computers to surf the internet. We did not even have good libraries to borrow books from. But, we had time; time that belonged to us; to spend in whichever way we wanted. I remember so many lazy and leisurely afternoons that I sat by under some tree to read the latest adventure of Tintin and Snowy or hunt for a ripe guava from the guava tree in the backyard. Time is something that the kids today lack completely. They have all the latest gadgets and gizmos that money can buy. They have more choices that we ever did during our childhood. But, somewhere along the way, they seem to have lost all the time that we had. It is the latest computer course or coaching class that they all seem to go to. Ask any parent today and he/she will inform you rather proudly that his/her kid is doing so and so program during the summer. One can rarely get any time off the odd kid/teenager nowadays. One wonders where those idyllic summer holidays went. The answer is that the time is past for all those old and almost forgotten things.

(Photo credits: Asterix.com, indusladies.com,http://www.ddindia.gov.in/,en.wikipedia.org,)

Dwadasha Jyotirlingas - The Twelve Jyotirlinga Temples of Shiva in India

Introduction:

Shiva is one of the three principal Gods of Hinduism. The holy trinity of Hindusim includes Brahma, the creator; Vishnu the preserver and Shiva the destroyer. Unlike other Gods, Shiva is very different in form and philosophy. While the other Gods are often described and depicted as dressed in finery, Shiva is characterized by his ash rubbed body, matted hair, the snakes twined around his neck as ornaments and the animal skin clothing. Shiva is probably the most fascinating of all the Hindu Gods. An ascetic and a householder at the same time, Shiva represents a perfect balance in nature. All powerful, he is still depicted in the poorest attire identifying the philosophy where all things in this world are eventually the same. Shiva is known by many names and is worshipped widely across India along with Vishnu. Hindu mythology tells us that Shiva was a very approachable God, worshipped by men, Gods and Asuras alike. Shiva is often worshipped in the linga form (a vertical narrow column), as Nataraja (the lord of dance), as Ardhanarishwara (half man and half woman) among many other
forms. Shiva married Sati; the incarnation of Shakti who ultimately sacrificed herself in a fire and was reborn as Parvati. Shiva has two sons from Parvati; Ganesha, the elephant faced God who symbolises good luck and Kartikeya. Jyotirlingas literally mean pillars of light. While the lingams appear most ordinary to the average human being, they are said to look like pillars of fire to those that are spiritually at a higher plane. This article tries to identify the dwadasha (twelve) Jyotirlinga temples of Shiva across India. All of these temples are very old and they have been major piligrimage centers during the centuries. Another interesting fact about the Jyotirlinga temples is that they are almost all of them located on the banks of rivers or close by to the rivers.

1. Somnath Temple, Gujrat (Lord Somnath)

Somnath is probably one of the most famous temples in India both due to legend and history. Considered one of the first Jyotirlingas, Shiva was worshipped at Somnath by different names such as and blessed him with an illustrous form for half of his time during the month. Since the moon regained his illumination at this spot, the name Somnath and Prabhasa came into being. It is not clear as to who first had the temple of Somnath built. Legend tells us that Brahma the creator himself built it. Some historic sources mention that Bhimdev Solanki, the then ruler of Gujrat had it built. But history does mention Somnath several times during the centuries. The wealth of Somnath was legendary; something that was confirmed by Al Beruni the Arab traveller himself in his writings on Travels in India. Unfortunately for Somnath, its riches and wealth attracted several Islamic invaders such as Muhmud Ghazni (at least twice), all the way to Aurangzeb. The temple of Somnath is said to have been rebuilt seven times. Legend has it that when Mahmud Ghazni sacked Somnath, he personally broke the Jyotirlingam in the temple and the broken pieces were taken to Ghazni where they were incorporated into the stone steps of the Jama Masjid. While several legends revolve around the sacking of Somnath, historic sources do provide us with the facts that the temple itself was built in different periods through history from Pratiharas to the Chalukyas to the latest version which was built in 1947 by Sardar Vallabhai Patel. Somnath is perhaps the most famous of all the twelve Jyotirlingams, seeped both in legend and history.
Mrityunjaya (one who has conquered death), Kalagnirudra and Bhairavanatha. As per the various texts of Hinduism such as the Skanda purana, the Moon or Chandra was married to the 27 daughters of Daksha prajapati, the son of Brahma and one of the prajapati's on earth. As it happened, Chandra/Moon loved his wife Rohini more than the rest of her sisters. The furiously angry wives went to their father Daksha and complained about their condition to him. Daksha was primarily known for his uncontrollable temper and he summoned Rohini and Chandra to his presence. After having confirmed the truth in the complaint, Daksha promptly cursed Chandra such that his illustrous light and face be reduced to nothing. From the curse, Chandra became lusterless and withered away with time. Chandra's 27 wives were alarmed with their father's curse and bade him to diminish it. A curse once uttered could not be taken back but it could be modified and so Daksha decreed that Chandra would was and wane periodically. But his lustre was still missing. So, legend has it that Chandra, burdened with Daksha's curse, turned to Lord Shiva and prayed to him at Somnath. Lord Shiva appeared in front of Chandra in due time

2. Srisailam Temple, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh (Lord Mallikarjuna and Bhramaramba Devi)

Srisailam is located in the midst of the Nallamalai hills near Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh. Dedicated to Shiva as Lord Mallikarjuna and Parvati as Bhramaramba Devi, Srisailam is the only temple with one of the twelve Jyotirlingams and one of the 18 Mahashaktis located in the same temple compound. As temples go, Srisailam is a really old temple and is mentioned in several ancient Hindu texts and by Ancient Tamil poets called the Alwars. The temple itself is surrounded by dense forests and in ancient times, pilgrimage to Srisailam made a very dangerous journey. Legend has it that the bull of Shiva by name Vrishabha did penance at this exact spot. In answer to his prayers, Shiva and Parvati appeared in the form of Lord Mallikarjuna and Devi Bhramaramba. There are several other

fascinating legends regarding Srisailam. It is said that the lingam was originally placed in its location by Lord Rama. It is also said that the five Pandavas placed five lingams in the courtyard. Srisailam is mentioned even in the Mahabharata. Even Hiranyakashapu, the fabled king of the Asuras is said to have performed pujas at this temple. One of the most interesting legends revolving around the Srisailam temple talks of how Parvati defeated the demon Mahishasura in the form of a bee. As if to illustrate the reality in the legend, a tiny hole in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple causes a buzzing noise not unlike that of a bee. Architecturally, Srisailam is a true dravidian temple with its gopuram or tower built with smaller stories or pavillions.The temple itself shows distinct influences of the Kakatiya and Vijayanagar dynasties. King Krishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagaram is said to have contributed heavily towards the temple. Famous throughout the ages, the saint Adi Shankaracharya is said to have visited Srisailam and composed his divine hymn Sivananda Lahiri. Even the Maratha King Sivaji is said to have had a gopuram built in 1667 A.D. Today, Srisailam is a major pilgrimage site in Andhra Pradesh.

3. Kashi Vishwanath Temple (Lord Vishwanath and Devi Annapurna Visalakshi)

Considered the holiest city in India since time immemorial, Kashi continues to be the seat of Hinduism. Of all the Jyotirlinga temples in India, Kashi Vishwanath is perhaps the most famous of all. Built on the bank of the river Ganges; the holiest of all the rivers in Hinduism, the Kashi Vishwanath temple is considered to bless a pilgrim with Moksha or liberation. Legend holds that the fifth head of Brahma stuck hard to Shiva's palm and that it came off loose only at Varanasi. Another legend tells us how Sati's left palm is said to have fallen at Kaashi. Like Srisailam, Kaashi Viswanath is also a very unique temple since it contains not only one of the 12 Jyotirlingas of Shiva but also one of the 18 temples for the Goddess Shakti in the form of Annapurna Visalakshi. A very famous tradition in the Hindu marriage is named Kashi prasthanam wherein the bridegroom pretends to go off to Kashi and is persuaded by the bride's relatives to stay back and marry the bride. This tradition is set to have its roots in the legend of Shiva where Shiva, once hungry for food decided to beg for it in the true manner of a sanyasi. Shiva's consort Parvati is said to have taken the form of Annapura (The goddess of food often pictured with a ladle in hand) and is said to have assuaged his hunger. Historically, the Vishweshwara or Vishwanath temple has been demolished several times by islamic rulers and invaders. However, like Somnath, the temple has been rebuilt painstakingly each time. The original temple is said to have been built about 3500 years ago and is of unknown origin. The latest temple however is said to have been built by Ahilya Bai Holker, the maharani of Indore in 1780. Several historic names have been associated with the temple. Akbar, India's most famous Mughal emperor is said to have given permission to the Hindu community to rebuild the temple during his time only to be demolished by his great grandson Aurangzeb in his religious zeal. Aurangzeb had the temple demolished and had a mosque built on the spot. The mosque and the new temple lie side by side to this day. It is said that the Kashi Viswanath temple contains a well which was used to hide the sacred Lingam from any invasion. Another fascinating custom is observed during the festival of Shivratri when the deity is worshipped by the King of Kashi and nobody else is allowed to view the puja or the Lingam during this time. The dome of the temple is made of pure gold leaf and is said to have been contributed by Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab. Several saints and philosophers have visited the Viswanath temple and they include Adi Shankaracharya, Swami Viviekananda, Guru Nanak, Tulsidas, Ramakrishna Paramahansa. It is interesting to note that despite several invasions and acts of demolition, the Kashi Vishwanath temple is still one of the most popular temples in the Indian subcontinent.

4. Omkareshwar Temple, Madhya Pradesh (Lord Omkareshwara)

Omkareshwar temple is located on the banks of the river Narmada. Legend has it that the island on which the temple is located was originally shaped as the holy letter Om and hence the temple was

named Omkareshwar. The hamlet of Mandhata has two famous temples of Shiva. The first temple is Omkareshwar which is considered one of the twelve divine Jyotirlingas. The second temple is called Amareshwar since Shiva is also known as Amareshwara or the immortal one. Several legends exist around Omkareshwar. Some believe that Mount Vindhya prayed to Shiva at this spot and was granted his wish. The holy spot came to be known as Omkareshwar. Others believe that the shiva linga at Mandhata split into two. One half became the linga at Omkareshwar while the other half became the linga at Amareshwar. Either ways, Omkareshwar is not without its share of beauty or fame. The guru of Adi Shankaracharya was set have resided in a cave near the temple. The temple architecture is unique and the huge Shikara is said to have been built in the Nagara style. As per the Nagara style, the Gopuram or the tower is built in the beehive form.

5. Kedarnath Temple, Utterakand (Lord Kedarnath)

Kedarnath Temple is the northernmost Jyotirlinga temple in India. Located 12000 feet above the sea level in the Himalayas, the temple is accessible only for six months in the summer. The temple is located near the Mandakini river and there is no clear evidence as to who originally built it. Legend tells us that Adi Shankaracharya, the saint had it built and to support this tale, a temple dedicated to the saint's samadhi is also located close by to the Kedarnath Temple. Kedarnath is one of the Char Dham temples of India. The entire temple is built from stone and is very different in its architecture to the other Jyotirlinga temples. Several Legends about Kedarnath prevail. Legend has it that the temple is located in the Rudra Himalaya peak where the five pandavas are set to have died. After the battle of Kurukshetra, the five pandavas visited Kedarnath in order to worship Lord Shiva who having seen them approaching the temple decided to take the form of a buffalo and then hide under the ground. Five portions of the buffalo's body were uncovered and together they form the Pancha Kedara temples. Arjuna, the third Pandava is also credited to have recieved the Pasupataastra at Kedarnath after his prayers. Bhima, Arjuna's brother is said to have had his legendary meeting with Hanuman (his elder brother) at Kedarnath after having searched for the divine flowers that Draupadi requested. According to tradition, Parvati prayed to the Lord Kedareshwar in order to be united to him. The boon was granted and thus, from that union emerged Ardhanareshwara, half Shiva and half Parvati. The temple was also built on the site where Nara and Narayana were supposed to have prayed to Lord Shiva and asked him to stay on Earth in the form of a Jyotirlinga. Kedarnath is full of traditions. Pilgrims visiting Kedarnath usually arrive at the temple only after visiting and bringing with them the holy waters of Yamunotri and Gangotri.

6. Mahakaleshwar Temple, Ujjain, (Lord Mahakaleshwara)

Ujjain is a very ancient city. During ancient times, it was considered to be the capital city of the kingdom of Avanti. One of its most famous kings was King Vikramaditya of the Gupta dynasty. The court of Vikramaditya was famous for its nine gems; personages of great talent who included Kalidasa the famous poet. The Kumbh Mela is also held at Ujjain making it a very important pilgrimage spot. As per the local legend a demon named Dushana created chaos in the kingdom of Avanti and the people prayed to Shiva to rescue them from the torment of the demon. Shiva obliged and killed the demon and then chose to stay in Ujjain in the form of the Jyotirlinga called Mahakaleshwara. There are several unique features of Mahakaleshwar that distinguish it from the remaining Jyotirlingams. The Jyotirlinga at Mahakaleshwar is a swayambhu or self born Linga. The Linga is also a south facing lingam and hence is refered to by the name Dakshinamurthy. This is the only Lingam amongst the twelve Jyotirlingas to have this attribute and the temple is a five storied structure with an idol of Shiva or his consort or sons adorning each level. In the basement level is said to be the deity Nagachandreshwar which is shown to public only during the sacred Nagapanchami day. The prasad offered to the Lingam at Mahakaleshwar can be re-offered to other deities, an outstanding feature considering that prasad once offered to a deity should never be offered to another deity. Pilgrims hold that a visit to the Mahakaleshwar linga ensures freedom from diseases and the fear of death. As temple architecture goes, the temple is situated on the shore of the lake Rudra Sagar. The gopuram or tower is built in the typical Nagara style seen in North India.

7. Bhimashankar, Pune (Lord Bhimashekara)

Bhimashankhar is one of the three Jyotirlingas located in the state of Maharasthra. Built on the banks of the Bhima river, the temple of Bhimashankar is a very ancient one. According to local legend, Tripurasura, a demon obtained a boon wherein he owned three citadels that were always floating around in the sky. As per his boon, Tripurasura was invincible as long as nobody destroyed the three citadels at once. After Tripurasura began harrassing mortals and celestial beings alike, Shiva is said to have fired an arrow through the three citadels that aligned together once every thousand years.

Tripurasura was slain and Shiva who had taken the form of a Bhima was set to have sweated profusely, causing the Bhima river to be born. Since that time, a Jyotirlinga, endowed with the powers of Shiva has been worshipped at the spot. As north Indian temples go, Bhimashankar Temple is a bit of a mystery. There are some portions of the temple that are very old and some that are fairly new. The sanctum sanctorum is situated at a lower level as is common in Shivite temples. Shivaji and other Maratha chieftains are said to have contributed generously for the upkeep of this temple. Saint Jnaneshwar is said to have visited Bhimashankar. Today, Bhimashankar is one of the most important shrines in Maharasthra.

8. Tryambakeshwar, Nashik (Lord Tryambakeshwara)

Tryambakeshwar, located at what is claimed to be the source of the river Godavari is a very unique shrine. According to local legend, the sage Gautama and his wife Ahalya lived here peacefully. As a ages who managed to let a cow into Gautama's hermitage. The sage was in a hurry to drive the cow away but due to unfortunate circumstances, the cow fell into the pit and perished. The death of a cow was a very serious matter from a religious perspective and Gautama prayed to Lord Shiva to allow Ganga to purify his hermitage of the sin. When Ganga arrived at the sage's hermitage, she was reborn as Godavari and Shiva took the form of Tryambaka. The legend is a very interesting one considering that the local population refers to the river as Ganga and not Godavari. The Tryambakeshwara Jyotirlinga is a very unique one. It is the only Jyotirlinga that has three faces attached to it. The first represents Brahma, the second represents Vishnu and the third represents Shiva. The lingam is quite small and is present close to the ground. Water constantly flows out from the top of the lingam. Tryambakeshwar Temple is unique since it is entirely built out of black stone. Its origins are unknown but history tells us that it underwent massive rennovation during the Maratha period. Tryambakeshwar is also a center for religious learning and several gurukuls were said to exist in the past.
result of a boon from the God Varuna, Gautama was blessed with a bottomless pit in his hermitage where he could store grain and other required articles. This pit became a source of jealousy to the other s

9. Vaidyanath Temple, Deogarh, Jharkhand (Lord Vaidyanath)

The Vaidyanath Temple at Deogarh is perhaps the most controversial of all the Jyotirlinga temples. Essentially, there are several schools of thought that maintain that the Vaidyanath temple at Deogarh does not contain the Jyotirlinga but another temple, also known as the Vaidyanath temple in Parli is the original one. Whatever the facts show, the legend associated with the birth of the Vaidyanath temple is a very charming one. It is said that the Rakshasa king Ravana once prayed to Shiva at this spot. Shiva did not immediately appear in front of Ravana and this enraged the Rakshasa king who immediately decided to lift Mount Kailasa and take it with him to his citadel of Lanka. Shiva put a stop to Ravana's plans by pressing down hard with his little finger. Needless to say, Ravana almost got crushed under the mountain. Realizing his mistake, Ravana prayed to Shiva again and this time, the God appeared in front of his devotee, pleased at his devotion. Ravana asked for and obtained a

Jyotirlinga from Shiva but the boon had a catch to it. The Jyotirlinga belonged to Ravana as long as it was not placed on the ground. once the Jyotirlinga touched the ground, it would instantly take root and would be immovable. Ravana set out to Lanka with the Jyotirlinga in his hand but when morning came, he had to go for his morning abultions and prayers at a nearby river. So, he handed the Jyotirlingam to a boy and bade him to hold it carefully until he returned from his prayers. The boy who in reality was Ganesha in disguise, placed the Jyotirlingam on the ground as soon as Ravana vanished from sight. When Ravana returned, he noted to his dismay that the Jyotirlingam was firmly planted on the ground and no amount of heaving would lift it up again. So, he chose to pray to Shiva once again and this time, as an offering, he chopped off nine of his ten heads. Shiva appeared before the distraught Ravana in the form of a vaidya (doctor) and then re-attached the heads back on. But Ravana lost the Jyotirlinga forever. A temple was then constructed around the Jyotirlingam and interestingly, one of the key features of the lingam is a tiny cleft on the top which is said to have come from Ravana's struggles to lift it. As north Indian temples go, nothing further is known about the temple itself. It is unknown as to who built it and the temple bears the typical Nagara gopuram seen in north indian temples. The temple is also marked by an enormous courtyard which is said to contain a well. The well as legend has it was built by Ravana and consecrated by the holy waters of all the holy rivers in India.

10. Nageshwar Temple, Dwarka (Lord Nageshwara)
Dwarka has been one of the most important pilgrimage centers in Hinduism since time immemorial. As per the puranas, Dwarka was the chosen capital of Krishna who established a yadava kingdom. The most famous temple in Dwarka is the Dwarkadhish temple dedicated to Krishna. However, not many people know that Dwarka is also the home of one of the twelve jyotirlingas of Shiva. The
Nageshwar temple of Dwarka is the home to the jyotirlinga of Shiva worshipped as Lord Nageshwara. Legend has it that a demon by the name Daaruka attacked and imprisoned several devotees of Shiva including Supriya. In their imprisonment, Supriya suggested to the rest of her fellow prisoners that they chant and pray for Shiva. Shiva promptly appeared in the form of the Nageswara and killed the demon Daaruka with his Pasupatastra. A temple was built over the Jyotirlinga and it came to be known as the Nageshwar temple.

11. Grishneshwar Temple, Daulatabad (Lord Gusmeshwara)

Grishneshwar temple is considered to be very ancient. This temple is located near Daulatabad (once known as Devagiri) and was restored twice in history. According to legend, a devout woman by name Kusuma worshipped Shiva daily by immersing his lingam in the tank of water. Struck by jealousy, the first wife of Kusuma's husband murdered her son in front of her eyes. Though struck with sorrow, Kusuma continued to worship Shiva and the next time she immersed the lingam in water, her son
came back to life. A temple was constructed on the spot for the Jyotirlingam which was worshipped as Lord Gusmeshwara. The temple follows the Nagara style of architecture seen in north Indian temples and was rennovated by the grandfather of Chatrapati Shivaji maharaj. Later on, it was demolished; probably on the orders of Aurangzeb. It was rebuilt again by Maharani Ahilya Bai Holker of Indore along with the Somnath and Kashi Vishwanath temple.

12. Rameshwaram Temple, Rameshwaram (Lord Rameshwara)

Rameshwaram is perhaps the most important shrine of Lord Shiva in south India. Along with the temple is built of granite and there are several corridors that are 4000 feet long with 4000 pillars. The interesting fact about the granite is that the stone is not indegenous to Tamil Nadu and had to be brought in from elsewhere. The Sethupathy dynasty of Tamil Nadu is credited with the constructiona and upkeep of the temple although almost all of the royal houses in South India have contributed to the temple. The temple boasts 37 thirthams and also houses the shrine of Sethu Madhava; a form of Vishnu so called because of the white stone with which the statue was made. The temple complex of Rameshwaram also bears distince Pallava influence as well although Pandya rulers were said to have constructed it first. Today, Rameshwaram remains one of the most important pilgrimage sites for Shiva in south India.
Kashi Vishwanath shrine in Varanasi, Rameshwaram is perhaps the main Shaivite temple in India. Legend tells us that Lord Rama worshipped Shiva on this spot after waging the battle with the Rakshasa King Ravana in Lanka. A victorious Rama is said to have requested Hanuman, the monkey God to go and fetch the sacred lingam from Kashi. As Hanuman was delayed, Sita is said to have shaped a beautiful lingam from the sand and Rama is said to have worhsipped this lingam. This lingam became the Jyotirlingam of Rameshwaram. When Hanuman returned with the lingam from Kashi, it was consecreted in the temple in the form of the Kashilingam or Hanumanlingam. Today, the priests always worship the Kashilingam prior to worshiping the Rameshwara lingam. As temples go, Rameshwaram is probably one of the most ornate and amazing examples of dravidian temple architecture. Built on a lavish 12 acre plot of land, Rameshwaram holds several records for Hindu temples. The massive temple complex is punctuated on four sides by massive gopurams. The entire

(Photo and content courtesy: metmuseum.org, wikipedia, Somnath.org, tripadvisor.com, tourismofmadhyapradesh.blogspot.com, ramnad.tn.nic.in, maharastratourism.gov.in, mahashivratri.org, ujjain.nic.in, srisailam.org, "Temples at Deorgag, Santal Parhanas, Bihar - William Hodges, 1782 - BL Foster 396" by William Hodges - Originally published/produced in 1782.Held and digitised by the British Library, and uploaded to Flickr Commons.)

The Ten Battles that changed the destiny of India

Introduction:

India, with its five thousand year old civilization, is not new to conflict. Indeed, the inevitable clash of civilizations over time has left the country with a long record of wars and battles. Most civilizations leave traces of their existence behind in the form of monuments. However, there are some that are actually remembered for the wars that they waged and the battles that they won or lost. While the outcome of most battles has been predictable, there were several that arouse a certain interest. One wonders what would have happened had the defeated party actually won since it is true that the spoils of war go to the victorious. While the battles themselves are recorded through history with bare bone facts, they are not without romanticism. For every battle, along with the facts, legends have been recorded too. This article attempts to list out important battles fought in India in chronological order and tries to analyze them.

1. Battle of Hydaspes river (Paurava and Alexander) :
Hydaspes river is now thought to be the Jhelum; one of the tributaries of the Indus river. The Indus is famous for the Indus river valley civilization and gave its name to the vast subcontinent of India. During 350 B.C, the kingdom of Pauravaa; the territory that lies between the rivers Jhelum and Chenab was ruled by King Purushottama. North India, during these times was divided up into individual states and when Alexander, the King of Macedonia arrived at the borders of the subcontinent, many individual rulers chose to offer him their support. Paurava or Porus as the Greeks called him chose not to hand over his kingdom and fight for it instead. The outcome was the battle of Hydaspes or Sindhu.

As battles went, the battle of Hydaspes had its interesting moments. Paurava’s army comprised battle elephants which were completely new to the Macedonian army. In addition, several of Porus’s neighboring states like Taxilla that were on hostile terms with Pauravaa chose to send troops to support Alexander. In 326BC, the two armies met on the battlefield near the Jhelum River. The battle is set to have been one of the toughest that Alexander ever faced in his life. Several of Porus’s sons were said to have been killed on the battlefield. The sight of the war elephants did nothing to quell the Macedonian soldiers’ concern about invading the Indian subcontinent. But, in the end, Alexander prevailed; winning the war by decimating the Indian cavalry and as legend tells us, turning the hysterical war elephants on their own masters. The losses from the battle were heavy on both sides but battle decisively belonged to Alexander. It is here that popular legend tells us one of the most interesting stories of the time. A badly wounded Porus is said to have been brought before the Macedonian king. The king was highly impressed with Porus’s bravery and skill during the battle and is said to have asked him as to how he expected to be treated. Porus, credited to be over six feet tall is said to have straightened his spine and replied proudly that he would like to be treated just as one king treats another; an impressive answer under the circumstances.
The battle of Hydaspes is important to early Indian history since the Macedonian victory resulted in the influx of Hellenistic culture into India. Had Porus won the battle and not Alexander, then the Macedonians would never have entered India. As it was, the battle took its toll on Alexander’s troops; they subsequently mutinied and demanded to return home instead of moving further down into India. The outcome was that Alexander left India without encountering the strong kingdom of Magadha, ruled by the Nandas. Alexander died in Persia and Porus ruled Pauravaa accepting Alexander as his suzerain, leaving a beautiful legend for generations to come.


2. Battle of Kalinga (Republic of Kalinga and Asoka):Asoka was perhaps the greatest king to ever rule in India. Son of the Mauryan king Bimbisara, Asoka’s early years marked him as an ambitious king perpetually at war with the intention of consolidating territories under the Mauryan Empire. History tells us that Asoka fought and killed upto a hundred siblings in order to gain the Mauryan throne. In the heydays of the Mauryan Empire, Asoka’s territorial possessions ranged from modern day Afghanistan in the north to the far reaches of Bengal in the west. Having unsuccessfully waged a war against Kalinga; a feudal republic located in modern day Orissa, Bimbisara passed away, handing the yoke of rulership to his sons. Asoka, the prevailing son of Bimbisara chose to invade Kalinga around 265BC and soon history passed into legend. Sources tell us that the battle of Kalinga was fought on the Dhauli hills outside of modern day Bhubaneswar. Rock carvings and edicts credited to Asoka have been found in these hills that lead one to believe that perhaps the Kalinga war was fought here.

What marks the Kalinga war as significant to Indian history is the change that it is said to have brought to the character of Asoka. Where Asoka had been territorial and war mongering in the past, the aftermath of Kalinga left him with a feeling of disgust for his former life. Kalinga is perhaps one of Indian history’s bloodiest battles. At the end of the battle, hundreds of thousands of men were said to have died. Legend holds that the Daya river that ran south of the battlefield was colored red with the blood that was shed on the field. The sight of carnage was said to be so horrible that Asoka, a perennial warrior was struck with the magnitude of the event. He embraced Buddhism and struck to Ahimsa or non-violence for the rest of his life. So why does Kalinga hold a special place in the history of India? While the battle itself was very gruesome, it taught a mighty king a valuable lesson about life. Abandoning his former thirst for victory and territory, Asoka truly became great. His life dedicated to peace and propagation of Buddhism. Asoka’s edicts tell us that the king focused on public works; the building of hospitals, universities in order to improve the life of his subjects rather than pursue a policy of warfare. Today, the symbol of Asoka has been adopted by the Indian Government as the national symbol. Asoka was perhaps one of the first kings in history who actually understood the consequences of his former follies and actively took steps to rectify them.


3. Battles of Tarain (Prithviraj Chauhan and Mohammed Ghor):
During the latter part of the 12th century, Delhi was ruled by the Rajput Chauhan king named Prithviraj. The legend of Prithviraj makes a great story. His deeds are immortalized by his court poet Chand Bardai who composed the famous Prithviraj Raso on the life of his king. While history does not tell us to what extant the legends of the king Prithviraj are true, we do know that he became the ruler of Delhi when he was mere teenager. Prithviraj Chauhan was originally from Ajmer and in his teenage; he held the crowns of both Ajmer and Delhi in his hands. Delhi, during his reign was referred to as Rai Pithora. Legends tell us about Prithviraj’s famous marriage with Sanyogita; the princess of Kannuj whom he carried off under the eagle eye of her father Jaichand. The undeniable fact regarding Prithviraj Chauhan is that for all intents and purposes, he was pretty much the last Hindu king of Delhi. Centuries later, Hemu would briefly sport the crown of Delhi but his rule would be insignificant; cramped between two famous Mughal princes.

Legend and History both agree that Prithviraj Chauhan was credited with the defeat of the Afghani invader Mohammed Ghor during the first battle of Tarain. The battle is said to have taken place in Punjab, near modern day city of Bhatinda. While some legends of doubtful nature reveal that Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Mohammed Ghor sixteen times, experts agree that it was during the first battle of Tarain that Prithviraj defeated the Afghan king. Then, Prithviraj is credited to have done something astonishing. He is said to have released Mohammed Ghor and allowed him to go back to his country. The second battle of Tarain however had vastly different results. Prithviraj Chauhan lost this battle to Mohammed Ghor and the latter did not prove to be as magnanimous. The Prithviraj Raso tells us the Mohammed Ghor had Prithviraj Chauhan blinded and taken to Afghanistan where the blind Rajput king chose to slay the sultan and then kill himself. So why are the battles of Tarain so important? Keeping all glorious legends aside, the fact remains that Prithviraj Chauhan was the second last king Hindu king of Delhi. The battles and Prithviraj’s subsequent defeat ensured that no other Hindu dynasty would ever rule Delhi again. Prithviraj’s defeat also signified the arrival of Islam to India. For most of the succeeding centuries, the conflicts between Islamic rulers and Hindu rulers (Rajputs and later Marathas) would dominate the Indian political landscape. Had Prithviraj Chauhan won both battles of Tarain, then perhaps the advent of Islam into India would have been delayed by a century at least.


4. First battle of Panipat (Ibrahim Lodhi and Babur):
There have been three famous battles in Panipat; an obscure city in modern day Haryana that has been history’s battleground since time immemorial. The first battle of Panipat is of special significance. During 1546, Delhi was ruled by Ibrahim Lodhi of the Lodhi dynasty. Unlike his father Sikandar Lodhi, Ibrahim was unpopular amongst his nobility and subjects alike. Eventually, he faced the Mongol adventurer Babur in what was one of histories most famous battles. Babur; aptly nicknamed the tiger, was a Mongol prince from central Asia who was descended from Timur the terrible on his father’s side and Genghis Khan on his mother’s side. With such lineage, it was remarkable that his early years were marked by his incapability of holding his territorial possessions of Samarkand and Fergana. Eventually, Babur turned towards India; that prized land of wealth that could provide him with the means of overthrowing usurpers to his favorite Samarkand. In the fateful year of 1546, on April 21st, Babur’s forces met Ibrahim Lodhi’s army at the battlefield of Panipat. History tells us that the first battle of Panipat is indeed remarkable from its predecessors. Babur had only 15000 men to his name while Ibrahim Lodhi’s forces were placed at 100,000. Facing overwhelming odds against him, Babur still prevailed and won the battle. His victory is credited to two important things that would mark battles in India henceforth; gunpowder and artillery. Babur had access to field artillery and with this key weapon, he is said to have reduced Ibrahim Lodhi’s army to pieces. Lodhi’s army also comprised war elephants, the bane of Indian battles. The elephants were said to have reached such a degree of panic, that they stampeded their own army in their mad haste to quit the battlefield. In the end, Ibrahim Lodhi died at the battle of Panipat and with him ended the days of the Delhi Sultanate. So why is the first battle of Panipat so important? Before the battle of Panipat, Delhi was ruled by the last scion of the Delhi Sultanate. Now, with Babur victorious, the path was paved for another new dynasty; one that would become one of the most famous in Indian history. The Mughal Empire in India was created.


5. Battle of Khanwa (Rana Sanga and Babur)

After his resounding victory at Panipat against Ibrahim Lodhi, Babur was the undisputed ruler of northern India. However, the Rajputs of Rajasthan proved to be a perpetual thorn on his side. Babur, shrewd strategist that he was, realized that the Rajput kings had grabbed large tracts of land from the Delhi Sultanate and were possibly looking to re-establish Hindu rule at Delhi. He singled out his most dangerous opponent yet; Rana Sanga. Rana Sanga was a true son of Rajputana; that fierce land that . Then, as he shrewdly sued for peace, he lured away one of Rana Sanga’s strongest supporters. Thus through cunning and treachery, he defeated the Rana at the battle of Khanwa. Why is the battle of Khanwa important? The battle of Khanwa was one of the first proven instances where propaganda was used as a tool. Babur declared that it was his religious duty to defeat the pagan Hindu ruler Rana Sanga and thus decided to label this battle as a Jihad. He declared that for the rest of the campaign, he would not touch wine and is credited to have made every soldier in his army swear on the holy Koran that that the fight would be to death. While a great battle was indeed fought at Khanwa between Babur and Rana Sanga, several sources cite the fact that the war was won as a result of treachery and propaganda. Most importantly, victory over Rana Sanga made Babur the undisputed king of north India; something that promoted the longevity of the Mughal Empire. The Rajputs continued to cause trouble for Mughals.
was synonymous with heroism and bravery. Rana Sanga, the one eyed, one armed ruler of Mewar was indeed suspicious of Babur’s intentions towards Rajputana. So, in the end, the two armies met at Khanwa; a small town near Agra. The battle was a long and hard one and as per ‘Todd’s Annals and antiquities of Rajputana’, Babur sent a cavalry of men that was decimated by the Rajputs



6. Second battle of Panipat (Akbar and Hemu)

The name Panipat has forever been associated with famous battles. The year 1556 was of great importance to the Mughals. After Babur conquered Delhi, his son Humayun inherited the Mughal throne. But it was not an easy throne to inherit. Humayun faced opposition from the scion of the Afghani Suri dynasty Adil Shah Suri. Indeed, there came a time when the Mughal possessions comprised only of Kandahar, Kabul and part of Punjab. Hemachandra, popularly known as Hemu was Adil Shah Suri’s general and he managed to wring the prize of Delhi from the hands of the Mughals. It was at this time that a event took place that perhaps changed the course of history. Humayun, a scholarly and superstitious Mughal, lacking in his fathers military skills, fell from his library steps and died. Humayun’s son Akbar was campaigning in Punjab at the time of his father’s death and he was instantly crowned the king of Hindustan. However, for all intents and purposes, the crowning was an empty gesture as Delhi, the seat of power lay in the hands of Hemu who had now given himself the name of Vikramaditya. Mohammed Jalalludin Akbar, perhaps the most famous of all the Mughals chose to fight for his inheritance and under the guardianship of Bairam Khan, his chief minister, he decided to settle matters on the battlefield. So, on November 5th 1556, the two armies met on the battlefield of Panipat. As armies went, Hemu was actually said to have had the advantage, his army comprising of battle elephants. Initially, to all accounts, it looked as if Hemu would win the battle. However, a stray arrow that pieced his eye changed the course of the battle. Without a leader, Hemu’s army scattered and at the end of the day, victory lay decisively in the hands of Akbar. It is not known whether Hemu died from his wounds or was killed but legend holds it that Akbar had his head sent to his harem for display. So why is the second battle of Panipat so important? Although Babur had conquered India a few decades ago, his hold on India had not been secure. During the reign of Humayun, the Mughals actually lost territory. But, with the victory in the second battle of Panipat, Akbar had effectively gained back everything that was lost and was now the undisputed ruler of northern India. Akbar won many battles during his lifetime but Panipat holds a special place since it was his very first important victory. The defeat of Hemu also meant the end of Hindu rule in north India. History records Hemu as the last Hindu king of Delhi and subsequently, the throne passed through the Mughal hands and then into those of the British.


7. Battle of Haldi Ghati (Maharana Pratap and Akbar)
Though Akbar gained supremacy of northern India after the battle of Panipat, he was still not the undisputed ruler. His biggest concerns were the Rajput rulers of Rajasthan that had consistently defied foreign invasion and suzerainty for centuries. Steeped in traditions and pride, Rajasthan proved to be a constant threat to Akbar and he chose to undermine the threat through various means, smart as well as devious. He married into the Rajput royal families; a brilliant tactic that would pave the path for the rest of his descendants as well. He enlisted Rajput Kings and chieftains into his army, giving them prime positions as generals. But, despite all these tactics, there were a few Rajput strongholds that continued to defy the Mughal Rule. Mewar, the legendary stronghold continued to defy Akbar and his rule. In 1568, Akbar laid siege on Chitaurgarh; the ancestral home of the Mewar Rajputs and the Rana Udai Singh was forced to abandon the fort and found another city called Udaipur. The women committed Jauhar and the fort came under Mughal rule. Maharana Pratap, the son of Rana Udai Singh never accepted Akbar as the emperor of India. The clash between the two was inevitable although Akbar tried to make peace with the Rana by sending Raja Man Singh of Amber (Jaipur) to negotiate a peace treaty. The negotiations fell through and the forces of Akbar and Maharana Pratap met at Haldi Ghati in Rajasthan on June 1576. The Rajput forces were said to have been vastly outnumbered by Akbar’s army and as battles go, legend tells us that the battle of Haldi Ghati lasted only a few hours. It is said that Rana Pratap, on his faithful horse Chetak, actually attacked and killed

the mahout that was driving Raja Man Singh on his elephant. Tales, passed through time also tell us that Rana Pratap’s faithful horse Chetak perished in the battle and that the Rana is said to have shed many tears for his horse’s sacrifice in saving his life. In the end, Akbar won the battle and Maharana Pratap had to retreat to the hills to escape the Mughal wrath. So why is the battle of Haldi Ghati important? After the battle of Khanwa, the battle of Haldi Ghati was the next major battle fought between the Rajputs and the Mughals. While Akbar won the battle, the Mughal losses were said to be very heavy. The Bhils who fought alongside the Mewar Rajputs were said to have been honored by having their emblem alongside Maharana Pratap’s in the official badge of Mewar. Maharana Pratap managed to elude the Mughals and hide in the hills from whence he conducted guerrilla warfare, constantly causing trouble for the Mughals until his death a few years later. Today, history remembers the legend of Maharana Pratap and the battle of Haldi Ghati all too well. A historic landmark is said to be constructed at the very spot where the faithful horse Chetak died in battle. Maharana Pratap is remembered today as the proud son of Rajasthan who chose not to accede to Mughal rule until the end of his days.



8. Third battle of Panipat (Ahmed shah Abdali and Sadashiv Rao Bhau Peshwa)
India is not new to the emergence of new dynasties while the old ones vanished into obscurity through war and conquest. In 1750’s the Mughal dynasty built so painstakingly by Babur and Akbar had all but declined in might. Instead, several minor kingdoms emerged out of which the most memorable were the Marathas. The Maratha Empire was the dominant Indian Hindu kingdom that grew to be a name to be contended with during the 17th and 18th centuries. Originally from Maharashtra (from which the name Maratha has been derived), the Marathas were first united under the banner of Shivaji, the greatest Maratha warrior ever. However, through the passage of time, they were divided into five major kingdoms; the Holkers of Indore, the Peshwas of Poona, the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Scindias of Gwalior and the Bhonsles of Nagpur. The Marathas in the 18th century were a force to contend with considering that the Mughal dynasty had all but declined through the

centuries after the death of Aurangzeb. It was at this time that the Marathas gained significant territorial gains from the Mughals. These territorial possessions were the source of the main contention between Ahmed Shah Abdali, an Afghani Pashtun and the Marathas. In January of 1761, the two armies met at Panipat in Haryana. The nawab of Oudh, Suja-ud-daula supported Abdali. The third battle of Panipat also saw the French artillery in action. But despite having the French Artillery, the Marathas lost heavily. So why is the third battle of Panipat so important? Because the third battle of Panipat saw the end of Maratha dominance. Several Maratha stalwarts including Sadashiv Rao Bhau; the Maratha commander perished in battle. While their own territorial aggression did not endear the Marathas to the people of North India, several historian point that the Marathas lost the war because they chose to go to battle without any suitable allies. Several heavy losses were inflicted on the two sides and the battle paved the way for the emergence of another dominant culture in India; the British.

9. The Battle of Plassey (Siraj-ud-daula, British)The third battle of Panipat saw the Maratha Empire in decline. It was around this time that another dominant force began prevailing in India. The British first arrived in India during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. They came as traders under the banner of the East India Company but after several years, they began to participate in the local Indian politics for their own gain. The British fought many wars in India. But of all the skirmishes that they had in different portions of India, the most famous of them all is perhaps the battle of Plassey.
The kingdom of Oudh or Avadh was ruled by the Nawab Siraj-ud-daula. He was not very popular amongst his subjects and was not a wise ruler. In 1757, Siraj-ud-daula chose to capture Fort William, a British settlement in Bengal. The East India Company, tired of having to pay taxes to Avadh picked this incident as the reason for going to war against the Awadhi army. The two armies met in Palashi, a small hamlet in Bengal. While the army of Avadh was evenly matched against the British and even had a small French contingent on their side, they stood no chance to win. Siraj-ud-daula’s commander in chief Mir Jaffer deflected over to the British side and the battle was over in a matter of few hours. So, a victory that was at hand changed into defeat. After the battle of Plassey, Mir Jaffer was made the puppet nawab of Avadh only to be disposed off later. So why is the Battle of Plassey important? The battle of Plassey was perhaps one of the most important battles fought by the British in India. Before the battle, the British East India Company passed itself as a trading outfit with no interest in territory or politics of India. Post battle of Plassey, the Company showed itself in its true colonial light. The battle of Plassey was the first major victory for the British in India and for them, there was no looking back. The British pursued a single minded policy of aggression and expansion in the remaining parts of the country as well after the battle of Plassey. The traders changed to dominant rulers and within the next two hundred years, the British became the dominant and undisputed rulers of India.

They fought four wars with the Marathas and all of them focused on the Maratha territory. The end result was that the Maratha Empire was broken up and significantly reduced by the British. The British also fought several important wars with Mysore and these wars came to be known as the Anglo-Mysore wars. At the end of the Anglo-Mysore wars, the British became the virtual rulers of the state of Mysore and though they chose to reinstate the original royal family of Mysore, it never quite gained prominence in history again.
Finally, the British also fought with the Sikhs, people of Punjab who followed the teachings of Guru Nanak. The reign of Raja Ranjit Singh saw a golden era for the Sikhs but when the king died, the Khalsa (the religious order of the Sikhs) remained divided. The East India Company, always on the lookout for territorial advancement in India decided that the time was ripe for annexing the Sikh kingdom. So, the first Anglo-Sikh war was fought at Ferozpur. The Sikhs lost the war and the result was that they had to sign off Kashmir to the British. In addition, Queen Victoria gained possession of the Kohinoor diamond. The situation between the British and the Sikhs was at a status quo of sorts and eventually this led to the second Anglo-Sikh war. If the first Anglo-Sikh war had greatly diminished the powers of the Sikh Kingdom, the second Anglo-Sikh war completely brought forth the end of independent Sikh rule. The British who won the war chose to annex the territory of Punjab under the rule of the East India Company.

10. The first war of Indian Independence (1857)During most parts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the British, who arrived in India as traders, chose to interfere in the Indian political scene.

Through battles and other means, the British controlled vast portions of the Indian subcontinent directly or indirectly. In the case of several kingdoms, the British followed policies like the Doctrine of Lapse wherein a state would revert to the British should the ruler die without issue. In addition, the British not only made several rulers homeless due to the Doctrine of Lapse, they also insulted them thoroughly. The crown jewels of the Royal family of Nagpur were publicly auctioned while the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was told not to call himself Emperor of India. Having thus alienated most royal families in Northern India, the British also forced their hired sepoys, most of which were upper class Hindu or Moslem, to use the new cartridges for the Enfield rifle. The problem with the cartridges was that they were coated in grease made out of cow and pig fat; an abomination in the eyes of the Hindu and Muslim sepoys. When the outburst came, it did not come in the form of a single battle but in a series of skirmishes that are referred to as the first war of Indian Independence or the Sepoy mutiny. In May of 1857, the sepoys in Meerut cantonment mutinied and then murdered the British population in that town before joining their comrades in Delhi. Soon, the movement spread and the British were facing revolt in practically every city in North India. As most British reports state, the uprising was nothing but a mutiny but new research and light reveals that the uprising went deeper than a mere mutiny. In some ways, it had shades of a religious uprising. The sepoys, having overthrown their British masters joined the armies of Jhansi, Gwalior and other such states that had sufficient cause for the dislike of the British. The disgruntled rulers joined in the fight and soon Bahadur Shah Zafar, that old octogenarian Mughal king in Delhi became the figurehead of the mutiny. Throughout the summer of 1857, the British scrambled to reestablish their rule in India. Several British residencies including Lucknow and Kanpur were under siege for months. Finally, at the end of 1857, the British began to slowly but surely regain their territorial gains and by 1858, India was completely under the rule of the British. Most of the rebels were killed by the British and the leaders of the revolt faced an equally horrible fate. Rani Lakshmibai or Jhansi died on the battlefield while Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled to Rangoon where he subsequently died. The Mughal dynasty that had been a figurehead for several decades was officially disbanded and destroyed. Thus, Bahadur Shah Zafar became the last Mughal king of Delhi before the city passed into the hands of the new rulers. So why is the first war of Independence/Sepoy Mutiny so important? The first war of Independence was the first time that India came together as a country to fight the British. The rulers of Jhansi, Gwalior and other such states joined under the banner of the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar for the first time. The 1857 war also saw the end of the Mughal dynasty. While the Mughal Empire had been steadily declining after the death of Aurangzeb, the British killed the sons of Bahadur Shah Zafar and exiled him to Rangoon where he subsequently died in obscurity. The 1857 war ironically also saw the end of the East India Company and the British government officially took charge of India. From 1857, all the way until 1947, India would remain a British colony. The former kingdoms of India still existed but Kings were mostly puppets set up by the British with no real say in governance and rule. The events of 1857 were never really forgotten and by the end of 1890, a new nationalist movement emerged in India; one that would actually lead the country to Independence in 1947.

(Photo and article credits: wikipedia.com,tripadvisor.com, news.bbc.co.uk, mutiny.wordpress.com, answers.com, sardana.tripod.com, traveludaipur.com, akbarnama, baburnama, ari.nic.in, thegreatalexander.com)